Ortodoxia în Grecia (cronologie)

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Aceasta este o cronologie a prezenţei Ortodoxiei în Grecia. Istoria Greciei cuprinde, prin tradiţie, studiul poporului grec, zona pe care ei au stăpânit-o de-a lungul istoriei dar şi istoria teitoriului statului modern, Grecia.

Pentru prima dată pe teritoriul geografic corespunzător Greciei moderne, creştinismul a fost adus de Sfântul Apostol Pavel, cu toate că apostolicitatea Bisericii se sprijină, de asemenea, pe Sfântul Andrei care a propovăduit Evanghelia în Grecia şi a suferit moarte mucenicească în Patras, pe Sfântul Apostol Tit, însoţitorul lui Pavel, care a propovăduit Evanghelia în Creta, unde a şi devenit episcop, pe Sfântul Apostol Filip care, după tradiţie, a vizitat şi a propovăduit în Atena, pe Sfântul Luca Evanghelistul care a primit moarte mucenicească în Teba, pe Lazăr din Betania, episcop de Kittium în Cipru şi peSfântul Ioan Teologul care a fost exilat în Insula Patmos unde a primit Apocalipsa ce constituie ultima carte a Noului Testament. Pe lângă aceştia, tradiţia spune că Maica Domnului însăşi a vizitat Sfântul Munte în anul 49 d.Hr.. Astfel, Grecia a fost prima ţară europeană care a primit Evanghelia lui Hristos. Către sfârşitul secolului al II-lea, episcopiile apostolice primare s-au dezvoltat şi au devenit scaune mitropolitane aflate în oraşele cele mai importante, printre care Tesalonic, Corint, Nicopolis, filipi şi Atena.

În secolul al IV-lea, aproape întreaga Peninsulă Balcanică constituia Exarhatul de Iliricum care se afla sub jurisdicţia episcopului Romei. Iliricum a trecut sub jurisdicţia patriarhului din Constantinopol în 732, la ordinul împăratului din acea vreme. De atunci, Biserica Greciei a rămas sub Constantinopol până la căderea Imperiului Bizantin sub turci, în 1453. Ca parte componentă a Patriarhiei Ecumenice, Biserica Greciei a rămas sub jurisdicţia acesteia până în vremea când Grecia şi-a câştigat independenţa faţă de dominaţia turcă.[1] În timpul ocupaţiei otomane, aproape 6000 de clerici greci, aproape 100 de episcopi şi 11 patriarhi au trecut prin săbiile otomane.[2]

Războiul Grec de Independenţă din 1821-28, deşi a dus la eliberarea sudului Greciei de sub jugul otoman, a creat anomalii în relaţiile de jurisdicţie, iar în 1850, Sinodul Endemousa din Constantinopol a declarat autocefalia Bisericii Greciei.

În secolul XX, de-a lungul aproape întregii perioade de comunism, Biserica Ortodoxă a Greciei s-a considerat, ea însăşi, un gardian al Ortodoxiei. Şi-a păstrat rolul de leagăn al Bisericii Primare, iar clerul grec încă este prezent în locurile istorice din Istanbul şi Ierusalim şi Cipru.[3] Biserica Ortodoxă a Greciei autocefală este organizată în 81 de eparhii, dintre care 35 încă se află, teoretic, sub jurisdicţia Patriarhiei Ecumenice din Constantinopol, dar care sunt administrate ca parte componentă a Bisericii Greciei (cu excepţia eparhiei Cretei, a Dodecanezului şi Muntelui Athos care sunt sub jurisdicţia directă a Patriarhiei de Constantinopol.

Arhiepiscopul Atenei şi Întregii Grecii prezidează atât peste un sinod permanent din doisprezece mitropoliţi (dintre care şase sunt din noile teritorii şi şase din sudul Greciei), care participă la sinod prin rotaţie şi pe baza unui calendar anual şi un sinod al ierarhilor (la care iau parte toţi mitropoliţii în funcţie) şi care se întâlnesc anual.

Grecia are o populaţie de 11,1 milioane locuitori, (UN, 2007), dintre care 98% sunt ortodocşi greci (CIA World Factbook).

Perioada apostolică (33-100)

  • cca 47-48 Călătoria misionară a Sfântului Apostol Pavel în Cipru.
  • cca 49 Călătoria misionară a Sfântului Pavel la Filipi, Tesalonic şi Veria.
  • 49 Călătoria misionară a Sfântului Pavel la Atena.
  • cca 51-52 Este înfiinţată Mitropolia de Corint în prima călătorie misionară a Sfântului Pavel în Corint; Sfântul Pavel scrie cele două scrisori către Tesaloniceni.
  • cca 54 Pavel scrie Epistola I către Corinteni.
  • cca 55 Sfântul Pavel călătoreşte din nou în Corint.
  • cca 56 Sfântul Pavel călătoreşte din nou în Macedonia; el scrie a Epistola a II-a către Corinteni.
  • cca 61 Sfântul Pavel naufragiază în Creta.
  • 62 Răstignirea Sfântului Apostol Andrei în Patras.
  • cca 95 Sfântul Ioan Evanghelistul scrie Apocalipsa în timp ce se afla în insula Patmos.
  • 96 Moartea mucenicească a Sfântului Dionisie Aeropagitul din Cei Şaptezeci.
  • 100 Moartea Sfântului Ioan Evanghelistul în Efes.

Perioada pre-niceeană (100-325)

Perioda Patriarhiei Romei (325-732)

Perioada niceeană (325-451)

Perioada bizantină timpurie (451-843)

Imperiul Roman de Răsărit în jurul anului 480, arătând extinderea Koine Greek.
  • cca471 Patriarhul Acachie de Constantinopol primeşte pentru prima dată titlul de "Oikoumenikos" (ecumenic).
  • 484 Schisma acachiană.
  • 493 Moartea Sfântului Daniel Stâlpnicul, un ascet care a trăit 33 de ani în vârful unui stâlp, lângă Constantinopol.
  • cca 500 Zosima, un istoric grec păgân scrie Historia Nova ("Noua Istorie"), o istorie a Imperiului Roman până în anul 410 d.Hr., dintr-o perspectivă anti-creştină care oferă o interpretare diferită a afacerilor Bisericii, alta decât izvoarele creştine; corpul scrierilor lui Pseudodionisie Areopagitul, care includ Numele divine, Teologia mistică, Ierarhia celestă şi Ierarhia ecleziastică influenţează dezvoltarea spiritualităţii mistice bizantine şi a isihasmului prin Maxim Mărturisitorul, Simeon Noul Teolog şi Grigorie Palama.
  • 502 Începutul Războaielor bizantine-sasanide, care durează până în 562.
  • 518 Patriarhul Ioan al II-lea de Constantinopol adoptă titlul de "Oikoumenikos Patriarches" (Patriarh Ecumenic); guvernarea bizantină începe persecutarea non-calcedonienilor din răsărit, în special din Mesopotamia.
  • 519 Bisericile Apuseană şi Răsăriteană se împacă punând capăt schismei acachiene.
  • 520 Roman Melodul, cel mai mare imnograf, dezvoltă Condacul, o predică în versuri cântate, până la perfecţie; Influenţat de Efrem Sirul, el îl influenţează la rândul lui Andrei al Cretei.
  • 529 Împăratul Iustinian închide Şcoala din Atena, pe care o fondase Platon în anul 387 î.Hr..
  • 529-534 Corpus Juris Civilis al lui Iustinian este emis, primul cod legal cuprinzător din istoria Imperiului Roman;; Novella 131 a lui Iustinian formuează propunerea de guvernare a Creştinătăţii universale prin cinci scaune patriarhale sub auspiciile unui singur imperiu universal (Pentarhia).
  • 532 Iustinian cel Mare dispune construirea Bisericii Hagia Sophia din Constantinopol;
  • 537 Se termină construcţia Bisericii Hagia Sophia din Constantinopol; Iustinian decretează că toate datele trebuie să includă indictionul.
  • cca 540 Moartea lui Osios David de Tesalonic.
  • 538 Împăratul Iustinian cel Mare, prin deportări şi cu ajutorul forţei, reuşeşte să aducă toate cele cinci patriarhii în comuniune, oficial.
  • 540 Raiduri ale bulgarilor în Iliria şi nordul Greciei.
  • 543 Doctrina apocatastazei este condamnată de Sinodul de la Constantinopol; Iustinian cel Mare trimite misionari în Nubia (cele trei regate din Nobatia/Novatia, Alodia/Alwa şi Makuria).
  • 544 După tradiţie, Mandylionul din Edessa distruge lucrările de asediere ale persanilor.
Imperiul Bizantin la cea mai mare extindere teritoarială în timpul lui Iustinian, cca 550.
Imperiul Bizantin în 650; Până în acest an pierduse toate provinciile sudice cu excepţia Exarhatului de Cartagina.
Imperiul Bizantin la urcarea pe tron a lui Leo al III-lea, cca 717. Zona cu dungi este zona atacată de arabi.

Perioada Patriarhiei de Constantinopol (732-1850)

  • 732-33 Împăratul bizantin Leo Isaurianul transferă Sudul Italiei (Sicilia şi Calabria), Grecia şi Insulele Egee de sub jurisdicţia Papei sub cea a Patriarhiei Ecumenice ca răspuns la sprijinul Papei Sfântul Grigorie al III-lea al Romei acordate unei revolte din Italia împotriva iconoclasmului, adăugând patriarhiei încă 100 de episcopii; împăratul iconoclast a rupt din Patriarhia Antiohiei 24 de scaune episcopale a Isauriei bizantine, sub pretextul că aceasta era supusă califilor arabi; astfel, jurisdicţia Patriarhiei de Constantinopol ajunge la aceeaşi mărime ca şi Imperiul Bizantin.
  • 734 Moartea Sfântului Petru Atonitul, considerat de marea majoritate ca unul dintre primii pustnici de la Muntele Athos.
  • 739 Împăratul Leo al III-lea (717-41) îşi publică lucrarea Ecloga , destinat să introducă principiile creştine în legislaţie; truele bizantine înfrâng invazia Umayyad? din Asia Minor în Bătălia de la Akroinon.
  • 746 Forţele bizantine recuceresc Ciprul de la arabi.
  • 754 Se ţine în Constantinopol Sinodul iconoclast, sub autoritatea împăratului Constantin al V-lea Copronimus, care condamnă icoanele şi se autoproclamă Sinodul VII Ecumenic; Constantin începe desfinţarea mănăstirilor.
  • 787 Are loc în Niceea Sinodul VII Ecumenic, care condamnă iconoclasmul şi afirmă cinstirea icoanelor.
  • 789 Death of Philaret the Merciful.
  • 803 Moartea Sfintei Irina din Atena, soţia împăratului bizantin Leo al IV-lea; Icoana Sfântului Luca este adusă la Agiassos, în Mitilin.
  • 814 Bulgarii încep asediul Constantinopolului; erupe conflictul dintre împăratul Leo al V-lea şi Patriarhul Nichifor pe tema iconoclasmului; Leo îl depune pe Nichifor iar Nichifor îl excomunică pe Leo.
  • 824 Creta bizantină cade în mâinile insurgenţilor arabi care fugeau de emirul umaiad al Cordobei, Al-Hakam I, şi înfiinţează un emirat pe insulă până la recucerirea acesteia de către bizantini în anul 960.
  • 828 Moartea Patriarhului Nichifor I de Constantinopol.
  • cca 829-842 În Muntele Athos apare icoana Panagia Portaitissa, lângă Mănăstirea Iviron.
  • 836 Moartea Sfântului Teodor Studitul.
  • 838 Califul al-Mu'tasim capturează şi distruge Ammoria din Anatolia.
  • cca 839 Primul război bizantin-rus, când ruşii atacă Propontis (urmărind probabil să ajungă la Constantinopol) înainte de a se îndrepta spre est şi a ataca Paflagonia.
  • 840 Icoana Panagia Proussiotissa este găsită lângă Karpenissi.

Perioada bizantină imperială (843-1204)

Imperiul Bizantin, cca 867 d.Hr.
Imperiul Bizantin sub Vasile al II-lea - cca 1025.
Imperiul Bizantin şi themata (împărţire în provincii) în 1045. În acea perioadă, Imperiul era cel mai puternic stat din zona mediteraneeană.

Ocupaţia latină (1204-1456)

Începe Frangokratia: împărţirea Imperiului Bizantin după Cruciada a IV-a.
Mediterana răsăriteană în jurul anului 1263 d.Hr.
  • 1265-1310 Schisma arsenită de la Constantinopol, începe atunci când Patriarhul Arsenie Autoreianos îl excomunică pe împăratul Mihail al VIII-lea Paleologu.
  • 1274 Ortodocşii participanţi la Al II-lea Sinod de la Lyon acceptă supremaţia Romei şi clauza filioque.
  • 1275 Unionistul Ioan al XI-lea Beccus este ales patriarh al Constantinopolului în locul lui Iosif I Galesiotes, care se opunea Sinodului de la Lyon.
  • 1275 Persecuţia călugărilor atoniţi de către împăratul Mihail al VIII-lea şi Patriarhul Ioan al XI-lea Becus; moartea a 26 de mucenici de la Mănăstirea Zografu din Muntele Athos, ucişi de latini.
  • 1281 Papa Martin al IV-lea autorizează o cruciadă împotriva nou reînfiinţatului Imperiu Bizantin de la Constantinopol, excomunicându-l pe împăratul Mihail al VIII-lea Paleologu şi pe greci şi denunţând unirea din 1274; expediţii franceze şi veneţiene sunt trimise către Constantinopol dar sunt obligate să se întoarcă în anul următor din cauza Sicilian Vespers.
  • 1283 Înţelegerea cu Roma este repudiată oficial.
  • 1287 Ultima menţionare a Mănăstirii de rit occidental Amalfion de la Muntele Athos.
  • Secolul al XIV-lea "Epoca de aur" a Tesalonicului, atât în literatură cât şi în artă, se construiesc numeroase biserici şi mănăstiri.
  • 1300-1400 "Cronica din Morea" (Το χρονικό του Μορέως) povesteşte principalele evenimente care au dus la stabilirea feudalismului în Grecia continentală, în principal în Morea/Peloponez, de către franci, în urma Cruciadei a IV-a şi care cuprinde perioada dintre 1204 şi 1292.
  • 1309 Rodoul cade în mâinile Cavalerilor Sfântului Ioan care îşi stabilesc aici cartierul general, autoredenumindu-se "Cavalerii din Rodos".
  • 1310 Schisma arsenită din Constantinopol se încheie odată cu reconcilierea dintre arseniţi şi iozefiţi.
  • 1326 Oraşul Bursa din Asia Mică este cucerită de turcii otomani în urma unzui asediu de nouă ani.
  • 1331 Oraşul Niceea, capitală a imperiului cu doar o sută de ani mai devreme, cade sub turcii otomani.
  • 1336 Meteora, din Grecia, devine un centru al monahismului ortodox.
  • 1337 Nicomidia este capturată de turcii otomani.
  • 1338 Grigorie Palama scrie Triade în apărarea sfinţilor isihaşti, în care apără practica ortodoxă a spiritualităţii isihaste şi folosirea Rugăciunii lui Iisus.
  • 1341-47 Războiul civil bizantin dintreIoan al VI-lea Cantacuzino (1347–54) şi Ioan al V-lea Paleologu (1341–91).
  • 1341-51 Se ţin în Constantinopol trei sesiuni ale Sinodului IX Ecumenic, care confirmă teologia isihastă a lui Grigoria Palama şi condamnă filozofia raţionalistă alui Varlaam de Calabria.
  • 1354 Turcii otomani ocupă primul punct din Europa, la Gallipoli.
  • 1359 Moartea Sfântului Grigorie Palama.
  • 1360 Moartea lui Ioan Koukouzelis? Imnograful.
  • 1365 Turcii otomani îşi stabilesc capitala la Adrianopole.
  • 1382 Se înfiinţează Marea Mănăstire din Meteora.
  • 1390 Otomanii cuceresc Filadelfia, ultima enclavă bizantină din Anatolia.
  • 1391-98 Turcii otomani asediază pentru prima dată Constantinopolul, fără succes.
Zona mediteraneeană răsăriteană în jurul anului 1450 d.Hr.

Ocupaţia turcilor otomani (1456-1821)

Greek War of Independence (1821-1829)

  • 1821 Greek War of Independance begins as Metr. Germanos of Patra declares Greek independence on Day of Annunciation (March 25), also Kyriopascha, at the Monastery of Agia Lavra, Peloponessos; martyrdom of Patr. Gregory V of Constantinople, Abp. Kyprianos of Cyprus, and Abp. Gerasimos of Crete in retaliation; Former Ecumenical Patr. Cyril VI of Constantinople is hanged at the gate of Adrianople's cathedral; Metropolitans Gregorios of Derkon, Dorotheos of Adrianople, Ioannikios of Tyrnavos, and Joseph of Thessaloniki are decapitated on Sultan orders in Constantinople; Metropolitans Chrysanthos of Paphos, Meletios of Kition and Lavrentios of Kyrenia are executed in Nicosia, Cyprus; liberation fighters started calling themselves "Hellenes" (for continuity with their ancient Hellenic heritage), rather than using the generic "Romioi" (Ρωμιοί) (which referred to both their Roman citizenship and religious affiliation to Orthodox Christendom).
  • 1823 Wonderworking Icon of Panagia Evangelistria found on Tinos, led by a vision from Pelagia of Tinos, becoming the most venerated pilgrimage item in Greece, at the Church of Evangelistria; martyrdom of Hieromonk Christos of Ioannina.
  • 1827 Europe recognises the autonomy of Greece.
  • 1828 John Capodistrias first president of Greece and confiscates Athonite metochia; Greek church opened in London (2nd time).
  • 1829 Treaty of Adrianople ends Greek War of Independence, culminating in the creation of the modern Greek state.

First Hellenic Republic (1829-1832)

  • ca. 1829 The purified and formal Katharevousa dialect of Modern Greek is promoted as the official language (to 1976).
  • 1831 The fully sovereign status of Greece was accepted at the London Conference of 1831.
  • 1832 European powers establish Greek protectorate; Otho I enthroned as Greek King.

Kingdom of Greece (1833-1924)

  • 1832-35 "Bavarokratia" closes down 600 monasteries and nationalises monastic land-holdings
  • 1833 The National Assembly at Nauplio declares the Church of Greece as independant from the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
  • 1834 Suppression of many monasteries in the new Greek kingdom.
  • 1837 School of Theology at the National and Capodistrian University of Athens founded.
  • 1838 Death of New Martyr George of Ioannina.
  • 1839 Theofilos Kairis of Andros condemned and imprisoned for teaching a form of Deism.
  • 1844 Prime Minister Ioannis Kolettis first coined the expression the "Great Idea" (Megali Idea), envisaging the restoration of the Christian Orthodox Byzantine Empire with its capital once again established at Constantinople, becoming the core of Greek foreign policy until the early 20th century; King Otho I accepts constitution.

Autocephalous Era (1850-Present)

The expansion of Greece from 1832 to 1947, showing territories awarded to Greece in 1919 but lost in 1923.
  • 1850 Endemousa Synod in Constantinople presided over by by Patriarch Anthimos IV of Constantinople recognised Autocephaly of the Church of Greece; due to certain conditions issued in the "Tomos" decree, the Greek National Church must maintain special links to the "Mother Church".
  • 1856 Death of Neophytus Vamvas, Greek cleric and educator who had translated the Bible into Modern Greek.
  • 1863 George I enthroned as King of Greece.
  • 1864 First Orthodox parish established on American soil in New Orleans, Louisiana, by Greeks.
  • 1866 Greek church takes the diocese of the Ionian Islands from Constantinople; beginning of the Great Cretan Revolution (1866-1869); the holocaust of Arkadi Monastery in Crete.
  • 1871 Body of Patriarch Gregory V returned to Athens and entombed in cathedral.
  • 1877 Death of Arsenios of Paros (August 18).
  • 1878 Council of Athens, convened and presided over by Metropolitan Procopius I of Athens, condemned the Makrakists, obtaining closure of Makakris' "School of the Logos" on the pretext that it taught doctrines opposed to the tenets of the Church, and addressed an encyclical to the whole body of Christians in Greece that was read in the churches, charging Makrakis with attempting to introduce innovations.
  • 1878 Cyprus is ceded to Britain by Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin.
  • 1881 Turks cede Thessali and Arta regions to Greece; Thessaly and part of Epirus added to the Church of Greece.
  • 1882 During the Patriarchate of Joachim III, the Great School of the Nation was housed in a new large building in the area of the Phanar.
  • 1888 Death of Panagis of Lixouri (Cephalonia); Typikon of the Great Church of Christ is published with revised church services, prepared by Protopsaltis George Violakis, issued with the approval and blessing of the Ecumenical Patriarch, while the Sabaite (monastic) Typikon continues to be used in Russia (i.e. from 1682-1888 the Greek and Russian Churches had shared a common Typikon).
  • 1890-1917 Emigration of 450,000 Greeks to the United States, many as hired labor for the railroads and mines of the American West.
  • 1885 Prominent Greek painter Nicholaos Gysis paints the famous "Secret school" ("κρυφό σχολειό"), refering to the underground schools provided by the Greek Orthodox Church in monasteries and churches during the time of Ottoman rule in Greece (15th-19th c.) for keeping alive Orthodox Christian doctrines and Greek language and literacy.
  • 1897 Greco-Turkish War.
  • 1901 "Evangelakia" riots in Athens Greece in November, over translations of New Testament into Demotic (Modern) Greek, resulting in fall of both government and Metropolitan of Athens, and withdrawal of publications from circulation.
  • 1902 Church of Greece takes responsibility for Greek Orthodox parishes in Australasia from the Church of Jerusalem.
  • 1904 Ecumenical Patriarchate publishes the "Patriarchal" Text of the Greek New Testament, based on about twenty Byzantine manuscripts, the standard text of the Greek-speaking Orthodox churches today.
  • 1905 Death of Apostolos Makrakis.
  • 1907 Archim. Eusebius Matthopoulos founds Zoe Brotherhood.
  • 1908 Death of Methodia of Kimolos; jurisdiction of Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America and the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia was given to the Church of Greece under an agreement made between the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Holy Synod of Athens (until 1922 in America; until 1924 in Australia).
  • 1912 Epirus, Macedonia and eastern islands, from Northern territories of Greece, are liberated and come under the administration of the Greek Church.
  • 1912-13 First and Second Balkan Wars; liberation of Thessaloniki from the Turks.
  • 1913-14 Greeks anex Crete, Chios and Mytiline, World War I.
  • 1914 According to the Corfu Protocol Northern Epirus is granted autonomy within Albania; Byzantine & Christian Museum is founded in Athens, becoming one of the most important museums in the world in Byzantine Art.
  • 1917 Hierarchy of the Greek Church changed in accordance with political control of the country.
  • 1918-24 Emigration of 70,000 Greeks to the United States.
  • 1919-22 Greco-Turkish War; a million refugees flee to Greece joining half a million Greeks who had fled earlier; Greek Genocide eliminates the Christian population of Trebizond and Anatolia.
  • 1920 Death of Nektarios of Pentapolis (Aegina); Chryssanthos, Bp. of Trebizond is condemned to death in absentio by a Court Martial in Ankara; Dodecanese Islands ceded to Greece by Italy; publication of Encyclical Letters by Constantinople on Christian unity and on the Ecumenical Movement; Treaty of Sèvres cedes Eastern Thrace and Ionia (Zone of Smyrna) to Greece, but is superceded in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne by which these areas were again lost.
  • 1921 Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America formed.
  • 1922 Metropolis of Aitolia and Akarnania founded in its modern form; death of Ethnomartyr Metropolitan Chrysostomos (Kalafatis) of Smyrna, lynched by a Turkish mob incited by Nureddin Pasha on Sunday September 10; Greek troops advancing on Constantinople are routed by Turks; the predominatly Orthodox Christian city of Smyrna is destroyed, ending 1900 years of Christian civilization; Patriarch Meletios IV transferred the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America from the Church of Greece back to the jurisdiction of the Church of Constantinople.
  • 1923 Exchange of Christian and Moslem population between Greece and Turkey; Treaty of Lausanne affirmed the international status of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, with Turkey guaranteeing respect and the Patriarchate’s full protection, also granting control of the Holy Mountain to Greece; Patriarch ceases to be regarded as head of the Christian Orthodox Millet in Turkey; Patriarch Meletios Metaxakis promulgates reformed calendar.
  • 1924 Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia founded; death of Arsenios the Cappadocian.

Second Hellenic Republic (1924-1935)

  • 1924 Death of Arsenios of Cappadocia; Constitution of the Holy Mountain agreed; Greek government adopts new calendar.
  • 1925 School of Theology established at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
  • 1925-45 Emigration of less than 30,000 Greeks to the United States, many of whom were "picture brides" for single Greek men.
  • 1926 Proposal for Mount Athos to be turned into a Casino by Dictator Pangalos.
  • 1928 The Ecumenical Patriarchate issued a tome by which it ceded to the Church of Greece on a temporary basis 35 of its metropolitan dioceses in northern Greece to be administered by it.
  • 1930 Mustapha Kemal Atatürk officially renamed Constantinople to Istanbul, which comes from the Greek expression "eis tin poli" (to the City) .
  • 1931 Benaki Museum opens in Athens, housing Byzantine, Post-Byzantine, and Neo-Hellenic ecclesiastical and national art collections.
  • 1932 Death of Papa-Nicholas (Planas).
  • 1933 Church of Greece bans Freemasonry.
  • 1935 Old Calendar schism, when three bishops declared their separation from the official Church of Greece stating that the calendar change was a schismatic act; Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, transformed Hagia Sophia into a museum.

Kingdom of Greece Restored (1935-1967)

Military Dictatorship (1967-1974)

  • 1968 Orthodox Academy of Crete (OAC) founded.
  • 1970 Death of Amphilochios (Makris) of Patmos.
  • 1971 Halki Seminary, Orthodoxy's most prominent theological school, is closed by Turkish authorities breaching Article 40 of the Lausanne Treaty and Article 24 of the Turkish Constitution which both guarantee religious freedom and education.
  • 1972 Ecclesiastical coup in Cyprus fails to remove Makarios from the Presidency.
  • 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Turkish forces advance capturing the 37% of the island, 3,000 are killed or missing, 200,000 become refugees; the Monarchy is voted out by a plebiscite vote of 69%.

Third Hellenic Republic (1974-Present)

  • 1974 Esphigmenou Monastery (Athos), a stronghold for the conservative Greek Old Calendarists, withdrew its representative from the common meetings of the Holy Community at Karyes (the administrative center of Mount Athos), accusing the Patriarchate of being ecumenist, and refusing to commemorate the Patriarch; Metropolitan Seraphim of Ioannina is elected Archbishop of Athens and all Greece (1974-1998).
  • 1975 Death of Papa-Dimitris (Gagastathis); Article 3 of the Greek Constitution officially declares the prevailing religion in Greece as Eastern Orthodoxy under the authority of the autocephalous Church of Greece, united in doctrine to the Ecumenical Patriarchate.
  • 1976 The Dimotiki (Demotic) dialect of Modern Greek was made the official language, replacing the purified and formal Katharevousa dialect of Modern Greek which had been in use for nearly two centuries since foundation of the modern Greek state.
  • 1978 Abortions are legalised in Greece but only under certain specific circumstances.
  • 1980 Death of Elder Philotheos (Zervakos) of Paros; Orthodox-Roman Catholic Joint Commission for Theological Dialogue, 1st plenary, met in Patmos and Rhodes.
  • 1981 Greece becomes the 10th member of the European Community, January 1; Adultery is decriminalized in the penal code.
  • 1982 Monotonic orthography was imposed by law on the Greek language, however the Greek Orthodox Church continues to use polytonic orthography.
  • 1983 Death of Elder Arsenios the cave-dweller of Mt. Athos.
  • 1984 Orthodox-Roman Catholic Joint Commission, 3rd plenary, meets in Khania, Crete.
  • 1986 Root of Jesse icon of the Mother of God in Andros begins gushing myrrh; glorification of Arsenios the Cappadocian (+1924) by the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
  • 1987 In April, parliament approved a law to expropriate monastic land in order to redistribute some to poor peasants, and to take over administration of urban church-owned assets; Abp. Seraphim (Tikas) of Athens was victorious however in preventing the government from expropriating church landholdings, by allowing some land redistribution while opposing nationalisation of church and monastery land.
  • 1988 Mount Athos is designated a UNESCO World Heritage site; radio station "Church of Piraeus 91.2 FM" begins transmitting in October.
  • 1989 Elder Ephraim of Philotheou begins founding Athonite-style monasteries in North America.
  • 1990 The Friends of Mount Athos society is formed by people sharing a common interest for the monasteries of Mount Athos, with Metr. Kallistos (Ware) of Diokleia being the President of the society, also including Prince Philip (Duke of Edinburgh) and Prince Charles (Prince of Wales and Heir Apparent to the British throne) among its members.
  • 1991 Death of Elder Porphyrios (Bairaktaris) the Kapsokalivite (Evangelos (Bairaktaris)) February 7.
  • 1992 Deaths of Gabrielia (Papayannis) and Chrysanthi of Andros; Synaxis of primates of Orthodox churches in Constantinople; Thessaloniki was selected as the cultural capital of Europe.
  • 1993 Church of Cyprus condemned Freemasonry as a religion incompatible with Christianity; canonization of Chrysostomos (Kalafatis) of Smyrna.
  • 1994 Death of Elder Paisios (Eznepidis) of Mt. Athos July 12; Museum of Byzantine Culture is inaugurated in Thessaloniki; Greek Parliament passes a resolution affirming the genocide in the Pontus region of Asia Minor and designated May 19 a day of commemoration.
  • 1995 Death of Eldress Macrina of Volos; Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I visits Patmos as part of the celebration of the 1,900th anniversary of the writing of the Book of Revelation by the Evangelist John.
  • 1997 A bomb explodes at the Patriarchate of Constantinople, seriously injuring Orthodox deacon Nectarius Nikolou and damaging several buildings.
  • 1998 Death of Elder Ephraim of Katounakia; Thessaloniki Summit held to discuss Orthodox participation in WCC; Archbishop Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) was enthroned in Athens as the new head of the Greek Orthodox Church (1998-2008); a proposal to force the separation of church and state in Greece was rejected; Greek parliament affirmed the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor as a whole (Pontian and Anatolian Ottoman Greeks), and designated September 14 a day of commemoration.
  • 2000 Government of Greece orders removal of compulsory reference to religious affiliation on state identity cards, despite campaigns against this from the Church of Greece and the majority of the public.
  • 2001 Death of Elder Haralambos Dionysiatis, teacher of noetic prayer; on the first trip to Greece by a Pope since AD 710, Pope John Paul II of Rome apologizes to Orthodox Church for Fourth Crusade; a day earlier some 1,000 Orthodox conservatives took to the streets to denounce his visit; in March, Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens blessed the Hellenic Genocide Petition Effort, which urged that the government not violate Law 2675/98 by deleting the term "genocide" when explaining the destruction of Hellenism in Asia Minor; Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens visits the Patriarchate of Moscow, being also received by Russian President Vladimir Putin.
  • 2002 Metropolis of Glyfada is established as a new metropolis separating from Metropolis of Nea Smyrni; Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens consented to the construction of a mosque in Athens to end the situation of the Greek capital being the only EU capital without a Muslim place of worship; Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople declared the monks of Esphigmenou Monastery (Athos) as being in schism with the Orthodox Church.
  • 2003 Orthodox Churches in Europe commemorated the 550th anniversary of the fall of Constantinople in May; the Greek Minister of Culture Evangelos Venizelos informs Europarliament session that the status of the monasteries on Holy Mount Athos and its way of life will remain unchanged, citing official recognition of this status fixed in Article 105 of the Greek Constitution and also legally confirmed in the special Athens Treaty clause specifying conditions on which Greece joined the European Union; in February, the Holy Synod of the Greek Orthodox Church issued a statement opposing the threat of war in Iraq.
  • 2003 Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens has falling out with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew over who should have the final say in the appointment of bishops in northern Greece, but rift is mended four months later; the proposal to build a mosque outside Athens before the 2004 Olympics was blocked due to opposition from residents and Greece's Orthodox Church which disagreed with the location and plans for the funding for the multimillion-pound mosque to come from Saudi Arabia's King Fahd.
  • 2004 In September, a helicopter carrying Patr. Petros VII (Papapetrou) of Alexandria along with 16 others (including 3 other bishops of the Church of Alexandria) crashed into the Aegean Sea while en route to the monastic community of Mount Athos with no survivors.
  • 2005 Church of Greece hosted the WCC World Conference on Mission and Evangelism in Athens, the first in an Orthodox country in the history of this body; in October, the "Grey Wolves" Turkish terrorist group staged a rally outside the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Phanar, proceeding to the gate where they laid a black wreath, chanting "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece", inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the Ecumenical Patriarchate from Istanbul; Britain's Prince Charles arrived on the monastic community of Mount Athos for a three-day visit in May; Vladimir Putin becomes the first Russian state leader to visit Mount Athos.
  • 2006 Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens visits Vatican, the first head of the Church of Greece to visit the Vatican, reciprocating the Pope's visit to Greece in 2001, signing a Joint Declaration on the importance of the Christian roots of Europe and protecting fundamental human rights; government of Greece announces it will fund and build a €15 million (US$19 million) new mosque in Athens, to be the the first working mosque in the Greek capital since the end of Ottoman rule over 170 years prior, welcomed by Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens and the Church of Greece in accordance with its established position; Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens castigated globalisation as a "crime against humanity"; Prime Minister Costas Karamanlis goes on a three-day pilgrimmage to Mount Athos; Pope Benedict XVI met with Greek Orthodox Seminarians from the Apostoliki Diakonia theology college in Greece who were visiting Rome, urging them to confront the challenges that threaten the faith by working to unify all Christians; a ruling by a first-instance court in Athens approved the formation of an association of people who worship the 12 gods of Mount Olympus, linked to New Age practises by the Church of Greece.
  • 2006 The church reported that there were 216 men’s monastic communities and 259 for women along with 66 sketes, with a total of 1,041 monks and 2,500 nuns, witnessing to a modern modest revival in monasticism; in September, barely 48 hours after a Somali Islamic cleric called for Muslims to kill the Pope, Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens told a sermon in Athens that Christians in Africa were suffering at the hands of "fanatic Islamists", citing the example of Roman Catholic monks who were slaughtered the previous year "because they wore the cross and believed in our crucified Lord"; Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens criticized the authors of a state issued elementary school sixth grade history textbook, as attempting to conceal the Church's role in defending Greek national identity during Ottoman occupation, the book being later removed in 2007; death of Elder Athanasios Mitilinaios, having authored thousands of recorded lectures in the spirit of patristic traditional Orthodoxy.
  • 2007 Greek Minority Lyceum at the Phanar (Megali tou Genous Sxoli - today a middle and high school of the Greek minority) wins a judgement condemning Turkey at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), for violation of the European Convention On Human Rights (protection of property); 1600th anniversary celebration of the repose of John Chrysostom; the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed the IAGS Resolution on Genocides Against Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, and Other Christians by the Ottoman Empire 13 July 2007, affirming that the Ottoman campaign against Christian minorities between 1914-1923 was genocide; a half-finished painting in the Church of the Holy Virgin in Axioupolis, northern Greece, of Russian communist leader Vladimir Lenin cutting off the beard of St Luke - painted as a symbol of communist oppression of the Church - offended traditionalists who wanted it removed.
  • 2008 Death of Abp. Christodoulos (Paraskevaides) of Athens, proving to be one of the most popular archbishops in Greek history, reviving the appeal of the Church in a secular age, especially among young people; Abp. Ieronymos II (Liapis) of Athens elected; Glorification of George (Karslidis) of Drama; Pan-Orthodox meeting in Constantinople in October of the Primates of the fourteen Orthodox Churches, signing a document calling for inter-orthodox unity and collaboration and "the continuation of preparations for the Holy and Great Council"; the 13-member standing committee of the Church of Greece denounced government plans to introduce a civil partnerships law, saying government support for common law marriage would amount to state-sanctioned “prostitution.”
  • 2009 The European Court on Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that Turkey violated the property rights of the Bozcaada Kimisis Teodoku Greek Orthodox Church on the Aegean island of Bozcaada; the Ecumenical Patriarchate has filed more than two dozen cases with the ECHR to recover some of the thousands of properties it has lost; US President Barack Obama made an explicit appeal in his speech to the Turkish Parliament for the reopening of the hotly contested Greek Orthodox seminary on Halki, viewed by the European Union and others as a test case for religious freedom in Turkey; a delegation from the Orthodox Church of Greece headed by Metropolitan Nectarios of Kerkira, Paxoi and Diapontioi Nisoi visited several monasteries in West Ukraine; Patr. Mor Ignatius Zakka I Iwas of the Oriental Church of Antioch went on an official visit to Greece, as the guests of the Greek Government and the Greek Orthodox Church to congratulate the new Abp. of the Greek Church and to renew the relationship between both churches; Elder Joseph of Vatopedi reposes peacefully, funeral service held July 1; Russian Orthodox Patr. Kirill called on Turkish authorities to re-open the Theological Seminary on Halki; over 1,000 Muslims rallied in the city streets of Athens over unsubstantiated claims that Greek police allegedly tore up and trampled on the Quran, smashing 75 cars, injuring 14 people, overturning trash bins and attacking banks; a group of Orthodox clergy in Greece, led by three senior archbishops, published a manifesto, A Confession of Faith Against Ecumenism, pledging to resist all ecumenical ties with Roman Catholics and Protestants, amongst its signatories including six metropolitans, as well as 49 archimandrites, 22 hieromonks, and 30 nuns and abbesses, as well as many other priests and church elders.

Vezi şi

Note

  • Some of these dates are necessarily a bit vague, as records for some periods are particularly difficult to piece together accurately.
  • The division of Church History into separate eras as we do here will always be to some extent arbitrary, though we have tried to group periods according to major watershed events.
  • This timeline is necessarily biased toward the history of the Orthodox Church, though a number of non-Orthodox events are mentioned for their importance in history related to Orthodoxy.

Church and State

The Orthodox Church in Greece has been considered historically as the protector of the so-called “Hellenic Orthodox Civilization.” The actual role of the Orthodox Church since the creation of the Greek nation-state has been interpreted in many diverse and opposing ways; nevertheless, in all Greek Constitutions the Orthodox Church is accorded the status of the “prevailing religion".
Article 3 of Greece's Constitution defines the relations between the Church and the State :

"The prevailing religion in Greece is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ. The Orthodox Church of Greece, acknowledging our Lord Jesus Christ as its head, is inseparably united in doctrine with the Great Church of Christ in Constantinople and with every other Church of Christ of the same doctrine, observing unwaveringly, as they do, the holy apostolic and synodal canons and sacred traditions. It is autocephalous and is administered by the Holy Synod of serving Bishops and the Permanent Holy Synod originating thereof and assembled as specified by the Statutory Charter of the Church in compliance with the provisions of the Patriarchal Tome of June 29, 1850 and the Synodal Act of September 4, 1928."[4]

Greece is the only Orthodox state in the world. The relationship between the Church and the State can be characterized as sui generis, since there is no complete separation nor is there an established church. The Church is the State-Church. The role of the Orthodox Church in maintaining Greek ethnic and cultural identity during the 400 years of Ottoman rule has strengthened the bond between religion and government. Most Greeks, whether personally religious or not, revere and respect the Orthodox Christian faith, attend church and major feast days, and are emotionally attached to Orthodox Christianity as their "national" religion.

Names of the Greeks

The Greeks have been known by a number of different names throughout history. Their rise to great heights of power and lapse to near complete destruction were situations that were repeated more than once, which is perhaps why they are such a polyonymous people. The onset of every new historical era was accompanied by a new name, either completely new or old but forgotten, extracted from tradition or borrowed from foreigners. Every single one of them was significant in its own time. From ancient times to the present these included:

  • Achaeans (Αχαιοί)
  • Hellenes (Έλληνες)
  • Graeci (Γραικοί)
  • Romans (Ρωμαίοι)
  • Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί)
  • Romioi (Ρωμιοί)

Patriarchate of Rome

The Byzantine "themes" of Greece rebelled against the iconoclast emperor Leo III in 727 and attempted to set up their own emperor, although Leo defeated them. Up to this time Greece and the Aegean were still technically under the ecclesiastic authority of the Pope, but Leo also quarreled with the Papacy; the defiant attitude of Popes St. Gregory II and St. Gregory III, who summoned councils in Rome to anathematize and excommunicate the iconoclasts (730, 732) on behalf of image-veneration, led to a fierce quarrel with the emperor. Leo retaliated however by transferring the territories of southern Italy, Greece and the Aegean from the papal diocese to that of the the Patriarch of Constantinople, in effect throwing the Papacy out of the Empire.
Previously the lands which Leo ΙΙΙ now placed under the authority of the Church of Constantinople, although subject to the civil rule of the emperor of Constantinople ever since the end of 395, had nevertheless depended upon Rome ecclesiastically, except for a few brief interruptions including:

  • In 421 (when a decree enacted by Emperor Theodosius II placed all churches within the pale of the Illyricum prefecture (then part of the Eastern Empire) subject to the Archbishop of Constantinople).
  • In 438, through the Theodosian Codex, Illyricum was again placed under Constantinopolitan jurisdiction.
  • To some extent during the Acacian schism, 484-519.

Praetorian Prefecture of Illyricum
The Prefecture of Illyricum was named after the former province of Illyricum and was one of the four principal divisions of the Empire instituted by Diocletian. It originally included two dioceses, the Diocese of Pannoniae and the Diocese of Moesiae. The Diocese of Pannoniae did not belong to the cultural Greek half of the empire, and it was transferred to the western empire when Theodosius I fixed the final split of the two empires in 395.

The Diocese of Moesiae (later split into two dioceses: the Diocese of Macedonia and the Diocese of Dacia) was the area known as "Eastern Illyricum", and in view of the detailed list of provinces given by Pope Nicholas Ι (858-67) in a letter in which he demanded the retrocession of the churches removed from papal jurisdiction in 732-33, this area seems to have been the region affected by Emperor Leo's punitive action.

  • The Diocese of Macedonia consisted of seven provinces: Achaia, Creta, Thessalia, Epirus vetus, Epirus nova, Macedonia Prima, Macedoniae salutaris (Secunda).
  • The Diocese of Dacia consisted of five provinces: Dacia mediterranea, Dacia ripensis, Moesia Prima, Dardania, Praevalitana.

Lucrări publicate

Perioada bizantină

  • Rev. Dr. Andrew Louth. Greek East and Latin West : The Church, AD 681-1071. The Church in History Vol. III. Crestwood, N.Y. : St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 2007. ISBN 9780881413205
  • John Meyendorff. The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church. Crestwood, N.Y. : St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1982. ISBN 9780913836903
  • John Meyendorff. Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes. 2nd ed. Fordham Univ Press, 1979. ISBN 9780823209675
  • J. M. Hussey. Church & Learning in the Byzantine Empire, 867-1185. Oxford University Press, 1937.
  • Milton V. Anastos. Aspects of the Mind of Byzantium: Political Theory, Theology, and Ecclesiastical Relations with the See of Rome. Ashgate Publications, Variorum Collected Studies Series, 2001.
  • Milton V. Anastos. "The transfer of Illyricum, Calabria, and Sicily to the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople in 732-33." In: Anastos, Studies in Byzantine Intellectual History. Variorum Collected Studies Series, London, 1979.
  • Prof. Fergus Millar. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). University of California Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0520253919
  • Fr. Robert F. Taft (S.J.), Patriarch Athenagoras Orthodox Institute. Through Their Own Eyes: Liturgy as the Byzantines Saw It. InterOrthodox Press, 2006. 172 pp. (ISBN 1932401067; ISBN 9781932401066)
  • Speros Vryonis, (Jr). "Byzantine Attitudes towards Islam during the Late Middle Ages." Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies 12 (1971).
  • Steven Runciman. The Byzantine Theocracy. Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 9780521545914
  • Timothy S. Miller. Medieval Byzantine Christianity. Ed. by Derek Krueger. A People's History of Christianity, Vol. 3. Minneapolis, Fortress Press. 2006. pp.252.

Ocupaţia latină

  • Aristeides Papadakis (with John Meyendorff). The Christian East and the Rise of the Papacy: The Church 1071-1453 A.D. The Church in History Vol. IV. Crestwood, N.Y. : St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1994. ISBN 9780881410587
  • Deno John Geanakoplos. Byzantine East and Latin West: Two worlds of Christendom in Middle Ages and Renaissance: Studies in Ecclesiastical and Cultural History. Oxford Blackwell 1966. ISBN 9780208016157
  • E. Brown. "The Cistercians in the Latin Empire of Constantinople and Greece." Traditio 14 (1958), pp.63-120.
  • Kenneth M. Setton. Catalan Domination of Athens, 1311-1388. Mediaeval Academy of America, 1948.
  • P. Charanis. "Byzantium, the West and the Origin of the First Crusade." Byzantion 19 (1949), pp.17-36.
  • R. Wolff. "The Organisation of the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople 1204-61." Traditio 6 (1948), pp.33-60.
  • William Miller. The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece 1204-1566. Cambridge, Speculum Historiale, 1908.

Ocupaţia turcilor otomani

  • Apostolos E. Vacalopoulos. The Greek Nation, 1453-1669: The Cultural and Economic Background of Modern Greek Society. Transl. from Greek. Rutgers University Press, 1975. ISBN 9780813508108 (One of the few scholarly studies in English of this period)
  • Bat Ye'or. The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude: Seventh-Twentieth Century. Translated by Miriam Kochan. Published by Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1996. 522pp. ISBN 9780838636886
  • Fr. Nomikos Michael Vaporis. Witnesses for Christ: Orthodox Christian Neomartyrs of the Ottoman Period 1437-1860. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2000. 377 pp. ISBN 9780881411966
  • George P. Henderson. The Revival of Greek Thought, 1620-1830. State University of New York Press, 1970. ISBN 9780873950695 (Focuses on the intellectual revivial preceeding the War of Independence in 1821)
  • George A. Maloney, (S.J.). A History of Orthodox Theology Since 1453. Norland Publishing, Massachusetts, 1976.
  • Leften S. Stavrianos. The Balkans Since 1453. Rinehart & Company, New York, 1958.
  • Speros Vryonis, (Jr). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971. (Very comprehensive, masterpiece of scholarship)
  • Steven Runciman. The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence. Cambridge University Press,1986.
  • Theodore H. Papadopoulos. Studies and Documents Relating to the History of the Greek Church and People Under Turkish Domination. 2nd ed. Variorum, Hampshire, Great Britain, 1990. (Scholarly; Source texts in Greek)
Articles
  • Elizabeth A. Zachariadou. The Great Church in captivity 1453–1586. Eastern Christianity. Ed. Michael Angold. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Cambridge Histories Online.
  • Elizabeth A. Zachariadou. Mount Athos and the Ottomans c. 1350–1550. Eastern Christianity. Ed. Michael Angold. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Cambridge Histories Online.
  • I. K. Hassiotis. From the 'Refledging' to the 'Illumination of the Nation': Aspects of Political Ideology in the Greek Church Under Ottoman Domination. Balkan Studies 1999 40(1): 41-55.
  • Socrates D. Petmezas. Christian Communities in Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century Ottoman Greece: Their Fiscal Functions. Princeton Papers: Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2005 12: 71-127.

Războiul grec de independenţă

  • David Brewer. The Greek War of Independence : the struggle for freedom from Ottoman oppression and the birth of the modern Greek nation. Woodstock, N.Y. : Overlook Press, 2001. 393pp.
  • Douglas Dakin. The Greek struggle for independence, 1821-1833. London, Batsford 1973.
  • Joseph Braddock. The Greek Phoenix: The Struggle for Liberty from the Fall of Constantinople to the Creation of a New Greek Nation. NY. Coward, McCann & Geoghegan. 1973. 1st ed. 233pp.
  • Nikiforos P. Diamandouros [et al] (Eds.). Hellenism and the First Greek war of Liberation (1821-1830) : Continuity and Change. The Modern Greek Studies Association of the United States and Canada. Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1976.

Grecia modernă

  • Anastasios Anastassiadis. Religion and Politics in Greece: The Greek Church's 'Conservative Modernization' in the 1990's. Research in Question, No.11, January 2004. (PDF).
  • C.M. Woodhouse. Modern Greece. 4th ed. Boston : Faber and Faber, 1986.
  • Charles A. Frazee. The Orthodox Church and independent Greece, 1821-1852. Cambridge University Press 1969.
  • Demetrios J. Constantelos. The Greek Orthodox Church: Faith, History, and Practice. Seabury Press, 1967.
  • John Hadjinicolaou (Ed.). Synaxis: An Anthology of the Most Significant Orthodox Theology in Greece Appearing in the Journal Synaxē from 1982 to 2002. Montréal : Alexander Press, 2006.
  • John L. Tomkinson. Between Heaven and Earth: The Greek Church. Anagnosis Books, Athens, 2004. ISBN 960-87186-5-1
  • Mother Nectaria McLees. EVLOGEITE! A Pilgrim's Guide to Greece. 1st Ed. St. Nicholas Press, Kansas City, MO, 2002. 927 pp. ISBN 09716365-1-6
  • Rev. Dr. Nicon D. Patrinacos (M.A., D.Phil. (Oxon)). A Dictionary of Greek Orthodoxy - Λεξικον Ελληνικης Ορθοδοξιας. Light & Life Publishing, Minnesota, 1984.

Referinţe