Ortodoxia în China (cronologie)

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Istoria Ortodoxiei în China este recentă în comparație cu ansamblul Bisericii Ortodoxe. Deși există un semn arheologic al extinderii creștinismului în vestul Chinei în secolele șapte și opt sub forma ereziei nestoriene, precum și semne speculative în privința existenței creștinismului începând cu primele trei secole creștine, istoric, începuturile creștinismului ortodox în China sunt înregistrate din secolul al XVII-lea.

Misiunea Bejing, cea mai veche dintre toate misiunile Bisericii Ortodoxe Ruse, a fost fondată într-o perioadă în care dinastia Qing din China ducea o politică izolaționistă a „ușilor închise”. Până în 1864, Misiunea totuși a servit ca misiune diplomatică neoficială a Rusiei în China și a fost subordonată Sfântului Sinod și Colegiului de Afaceri Externe. Împăratul Kangxi a conferit ranguri ale marii curți tuturor membrilor Misiunii și le-a acordat locuințe aproape biserica albaziniană, lângă poarta de est a Bejingului. Cu excepția Rusiei, nici un stat n-a avut propriii reprezentați în China sub dinastia Qing până în anii 1860.

Activitățile și realizările Bisericii Ortodoxe din secolul 17 încoace, au fost subestimate în multe studii istorice despre creștinismul din China. Până în 1955, în pragul stabilirii sale ca entitate independentă, Biserica Ortodoxă din China a câștigat cel mai mare număr de membri. Erau mai mult de 100 000 de comunicanți în fostul teritoriu în Manchuria, cu 200 de preoți și 60 de parohii, precum și mănăstiri și un seminar. În altă parte a Chinei erau alți 200 000 de creștini ortodocși și 150 parohii. Aceste cifre ample arată că 6% din chinezii creștini erau aderenți ai Bisericii Ortodoxe.

Primii creștini ortodocși în China (1242-1651)

• 1242 Ortodocși ruși din armata vestică a mongolilor au intrat în China; despre ei se spune că au stabilit o biserică mică într-o regiune vestică îndepărtată, loc acum necunoscut.
• 1270 Împăratul mongol al Chinei a importat un grup de aurari ruși.
• 1584 Armata rusă învinge Hanatul Siberiei, deschizând calea pe uscat spre est; începe dezvoltarea inițială a așezărilor rusești în teritoriul de la sudul și estul Lacului Baikal, împreună cu cazacii și alții aflați în serviciul statului explorând noi rute de negoț spre China.
• 1587 Rușii găsesc Tobolskul, capitala istorică a Siberiei.
• 1613 Sunt puse temeliile dinastiei Romanov în Rusia (1613-1917).
• 1632 Rușii se stabilesc în Yakutsk; din această așezare ei s-au dus exploreze pământuri mai fertile în sud-est, de-a lungul râului Amur.
• 1644 Este instituită dinastia Qing (1644-1912), ultima dinastie conducătoare din China.

De la Albazin la Beijing (1651-1715)

• 1651 Cazacul rus Erofey (Geoffery) Khabarov a întemeiat oraşul-fort Albazin pe râul Amur.
• 1652 Irkutsk is founded by Lake Baikal.
• 1665 Este înfiinţată cea mai veche biserică ortodoxă cunoscută, Biserica Învierii, precum şi o mănăstire în oraşul-fort Albazin (Yakela) în nord-estul Chinei.
• 1670 Împăratul Kangxi (1661-1722) a emis Edictul Sacru, ce consta în 16 maxime morale bazate pe învăţăturile confucianiste.
• 1685 Chinezii îi capturează pe albazinieni, dărâmând Biserica Învierii; Un grup de 45 ruşi albazinieni, inclusiv preotul Maxim Leontiev, sunt aşezaţi în Beijing de chinezi; împăratul Kangxi a ordonat ca templul budist al lui Guangi Miao (templu al zeului războiului) din colţul din nord-estul oraşului imperial să fie golit pentru locuitorii ruşi, devenind cunoscut ca Capela Nikolsky ("Sheng Ni Gula"; mai târziu consacrat ca Biserica Hagiei Sophia), prima biserică ortodoxă din China.
• 1689 Tratatul de la Nerchinsk a stabilit râul Amur ca hotar între Rusia şi China, recunoscând suveranitatea Rusiei asupra Siberiei răsăritene.
• 1691 Qing controlează Mongolia interioară.
• 1698 Consacrarea primei biserici ortodoxe, în numele Hagia Sophia, sau Înţelepciunea Divină, în Beijing, recunoscută de Ignatius, mitropolitul Tobolskului; cu această ocazie favorabilă mulţi chinezi au primit sfântul botez, astfel consacrarea primei biserici ortodoxe a coincis cu introducerea ortodoxiei printre chinezi.
• 1700 Petru cel Mare a publicat un Ucaz (decret) pe 18 iunie prin care a făcut un apel răsunător pentru propagarea credinţei în Siberia şi China.
• 1702 Ca răspuns la Ucazul din 1700, Filothei (Leschinsky) din Kiev este ales Mitropolit al Tobolskului şi Toată Siberia (1702-1711), long since un centru de operaţiuni misonare, ce avea scopul de a "conduce băştinaşii din China şi Siberia în slujba Dumnezeului adevărat şi viu"; el a construit 37 de biserici şi singur a făcut calcule pentru botezul a 40,000 membri ai triburilor siberiene începând cu 1721.
• 1712 Moartea Părintelui Maxim Leontiev; împăratul Kangxi a dat permisiune prin Lifan yuan ca nişte preoţi noi să vină în China.

Misiunea bisericească rusă în China (1715-1956)

Epoca reprezentărilor diplomatice (1715-1858)

• 1715 Arhimandritul Ilarion (Lezhaisky) vine în Beijing cu personal de serviciu, icoane, vase sfinte şi cărţi pentru slujbă ca cap al primei Misiuni Ortodoxe Ruse (1715-28); în personal erau incluşi ieromonahul Lavrentie, ierodiaconul Filip şi şapte călugări tineri; împăratul Kangxi a iniţiat practica de a primi misiuni ale clerului a studeţilor ortodocşi, aceştia din urmă având în jur de zece ani.
• 1717 Arhimandritul Ilarion (Lezhaisky) moare la Beijing.
• 1721 Împăratul Kangxi a emis un decret prin care indica că vrea să interzică misiunile creştine occidentale în China.
• 1724 Împăratul Yongcheng emite un decret imperial prin care promovează confucianismul ca mod corect de viață și interzice romano-catolicismul și într-o oarecare măsură budismul și taoismul ca culte neortodoxe; misionarii străini erau deportați la Canton și mai târziu la Macao, iar bisericile urbane erau treptat închise; în acest timp ortodocșii erau cu siguranță tratați mai favorabil, iar persecuția creștinilor misionari occidentali niciodată nu s-a extins asupra celor ortodocși.
• 1727 Prima misiune este consemnată în tratatul ruso-chinez din 1727 (Tratatul de la Kyakhta), în Articolul V, care acorda un sediu legal pentru instituția religioasă rusă în Beijing.
• 1729 Arhim. Antonie (Platkovsky) sosește ca lider a celei de-a doua Misiuni (1729-35), împreună cu Părintele Ioan Filimonov, ierodiaconul Ioasaf Ivanovsky și nouă monahi tineri.
• 1730 Misiunea raportează că au fost botezate mai mult de 50 de persoane între chinezi și manciurieni, excluzând femeile; a început construirea Căii Ferate a Ceaiului (Ruta Siberiană), care începea la Moscova și se termina la Kyakhta, un punt comercial aflat la hotarul dintre Imperiile Rus și Chinez.
• 1733-43 A doua expediție Kamchatka realizează cartografierea geografică a părții de nord-est a Asiei.
• 1733 Prima persecuție locală a creștinilor (occidentali), în Fujian, la sfârșitul anului 1733.
• 1734 De curând fondata Academie de Științe din St Petersburg a realizat un dicționar chinez-latin, ce includea 10 mii de cuvinte, în cele din urmă rămânând o singură copie în biblioteca Academiei, datorită greutăților întâmpinate în crearea a 10,000 de blocuri de lemn necesare pentru publicarea în serie.
• 1736 Arhim. Ilarion (Trusov) ajunge la Beijing ca lider al celei de-a treia Misiuni (1736-45), împreună cu ieromonahul Lavrentie Uvarov, ieromonahul Antonie L'khovsky, ieromonahul Lavrentie Bobrovnikov (după 1741), și trei călugări tineri în 1742.
• 1741 Arhim. Ilarion (Trusov) moare la Beijing; împărăteasa Elizabeta a emis un decret oficial prin care recunoaște ramura tibetană a budismului în Rusia, autorizând stabilirea a 11 mănăstiri budiste datsan, cu 150 de preoți în serviciu permanent.
• 1745 Arhim. Gervasy (Lintsevsky) ajunge la Beijing ca lider al celei de-a patra Misiuni (1745-55), împreună cu ieromonahul Loil' Vrublevsky, ieromonahul Feodosie Smorzhensky și un călugăr tânăr.
• 1747 Sub împăratul Qianlong persecuția reîncepe în 1747, extinzându-se asupra tuturor provinciilor, nefiind permisă intrarea mai multor misionari (occidentali) în țară.
• 1755 Archim. Ambrozie (Yumatov) sosește la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a cincea Misiuni (1755-71), împreună cu ieromonahul Silvestr Spitsyn, ieromonahul Sofronie Argievsky și ierodiaconul Serghei.
• 1768 Împăratul Qianlong a emis un decret foarte aspru, prin care interzicea tuturor manciurienilor, chinezilor, mongolilor și coreenilor să se convertească la o credință străină amenințându-i cu o pedeapsă teribilă.
• 1771 Arhim. Ambrozie (Yumatov) moare la Beijing.
• 1771 Arhim. Nikolai (Tsvet) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a șasea Misiuni (1771-81), împreună cu ieromonahul Iust, ieromonahul Ioanniki Protopopov, ierodiaconul Nikifor și patru călugări tineri.
• 1781 Arhim. Ioakim (Shishkovsky) sosește la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a șaptea Misiunii (1781-94), împreună cu ieromonahul Antonie Sedel'nikov, ieromonahul Alexei Bogolepov, ieromonahul Israil și trei călugări tineri.
• 1790 Classes in Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu were successively opened in the provincial academy in Irkutsk, but after four years these were abandoned due in large part to their difficulty.
• 1794 Arhim. Sofronie (Gribovsky) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a opta Misiuni (1794-1807).
• 1796-1804 Rebeliunea Societății Lotusul Alb, o societate taoistă secretă care aștepta venirea lui Maitreya (viitorul Buddha), restaurea dinastiei native chineze Ming și promitea mântuirea personală a adepților săi.
• 1806 Pe atunci opt misiuni separate au fost trimise să locuiască în capitala Manchu și în așezarea rusească ce includea clădiri ce găzduiau convenabil misiunea (Uspeniya Presvyatoi Bogoroditsu) sau "Concepția Preasfintei Maici a lui Dumnezeu", Biserica lui Hagia Sophia (biserica Nikolsky), o școală de studii în chineză și manciuriană și o școală manciuriană de studii rusești.
• 1807 Arhim. Iiakinf (Bichurin) ajunge la Bejing Beijing ca lider a celei de-a noua Misiuni (1807-21) și devine un sinolog iminent.
• 1812 După invazia lui Napoleon în Rusia, s-au pierdut toate contactele dintre misiune și patrie, și pentru un timp membrii misiunii au trebuit să supraviețuiască prin propriile eforturi și mici alocații acordate de guvernul chinez.
• 1813 Rebeliunea Societății the Eight Trigrams (Baguajiao), o societate secretă taoistă legată strâns de tradiția Lotusul Alb, stimulată în revoltă de credința lor că mileniul al sosit.
• 1821 Arhim. Piotr (Kamensky) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a zecea Misiuni (1821-30).
• 1820-50 În timpul domniei împăratului Daoguang au fost anulate cele mai multe decrete anticreștine, iar un decret imperial ulterior i-a grațiat pe acei creștini care își practicau credința pentru perfecțiunea morală.
• 1830 Ieromonahul Veniamin (Morachevich) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a unsprezecea Misiuni (1830-40).
• 1835 A fost publicat Noul Testament în manciuriană, tradus de Stepan Vaciliyevich Lipovtsov (1770-1841) care a învățat manciuriana în călătoria spre Beijing din 1794 ca membru a celei de-a opta Misiuni Ecleziastice Ruse.
• 1839-42 Primul Război al Opiului; Hong Kong a fost cedat Marii Britanii de către China ca parte a concesiilor din timpul Războiului Opiului.
• 1840 Arhim. Policarp (Tugarinov) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a doisprezecea Misiuni (1840-49).
• 1850 Arhim. Paladie (Kafarov) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a treisprezecea Misiuni (1850-58).
• 1850-65 Rebeliunea Taiping, o mișcare chineză milenaristă inspirată dintr-o înțelegere eretică a creștinismului, descrisă ca cel mai distructiv război civil din lume (numărul estimat de morți este între 20 și 30 de milioane).
• 1856-60 Al Doilea Război al Opiului.

Epoca unei activități misionare limitate (1858-1896)

Nord-estul Chinei (Manchuria Interioară), și Manchuria Exterioară (Manchuria rusă).

• 1858 Arhim. Gury (Karpov) ajunge la Beijing ca lider al celei de-a paisprezecea Misiuni (1858-64); statutul misiunii s-a schimbat după Tratatul de la Tianjin, întru-cât activitățile sale diplomatice făcute în numele Rusiei au devenit depășite; tratatul de asemenea a permis misionarilor să plece din Beijing în alte provincii ale țării, acest lucru având un impact pozitiv asupra misiunii Beijing; Tratatul ruso-chinez de la Aigun a stabilit o bună parte din hotarul modern dintre estul îndepărtat rus și nord-estul Chinei (Manciuria), dispozițiile sale fiind condirmate de Tratatul de la Peking în 1860, schimbând consecințele Tratatului de la Nerchinsk (1689) prin cedarea unor părți din Manciuria Exterioară Imperiului Rus.
• 1858-71 Ieromonahul Isaia (Polikin) sosește la Beijing, devenind un predicator neobosit și un administrator talentat (1858-71), el organiza parohii în sudul Beijingului și a lăsat în urmă un șir de texte în limba chineză
• 1860 În jur de 150 de misionari lucrau în misiune, deși s-a estimat că nu erau mai mult de 200 de ortodocși în Beijing, inclusiv descendenți ai rușilor naturalizați; după Tratatul de la Peking, și alte țări au primit, la fel de bine ca și Rusia, dreptul de a deschide ambasade diplomatice; vechea prezență rusă în Beijing a devenit cunoscută ca Curtea de Nord (Beiguan – rezervată pentru preoți ortodocși ruși), iar o Curte de Sud (Nannguan) a fost stabilită pentru ambasadori, ambele rămânând importante.
• 1864 Arhim. Gury (Karpov) termină traducerea Noului Testament și a slujbelor bisericești în chineză; fundamentul adevărat al misiunii a fost terminat atunci când a fost separat de politica rusă, iar din 1864 răspundea doar în fața Sfântului Sinod.
• 1865 Arhim. Paladie (Kafarov) se reîntoarce la Beijing ca lider al celei de-a cincisprezecea Misiuni (1865-78), traduce mai multe lucrări în chineză inclusiv „Cartea Psalmilor” și „Cartea de slujbe”.
• 1866 Este acordată permisiunea pentru înfăptuirea slujbelor religioase în chineză.
• 1868 Ieromonahul Isaia (Polikin) a botezat niște familii chineze în satul Dunding'an.
• 1879 Arhim. Flavian (Gorodetsky) ajunge la Beijing ca lider a celei de-a șaisprezecea Misiuni (1879-84); el făcea slujbe în chineză; în misiunea lui s-a ocupat în speciala de învățământ și activitate publicistică.
• 1882 Părintele Mitrophan Ji a fost hirotonit, în Tokyo, Japonia, ca întâiul preot ortodox chinez de Sf. Nicolae al Japoniei.
• 1884 Arhim. Amfilohil (Lutovinov) ajunge la Beijing ca lider al celei de-a șaptesprezecea Misiuni (1884-96), făcând un mic progres în ceea ce privește fondurile și instruirea; în timpul exercitării misiunii sale Liturghia efectuată în locuri ca Hankou, Tianjin, Kalgan și Urga, pe lângă Beijing și satul Dunding'an.
• 1889 Este publicat Dicționarul chinez-rus, aceasta fiind lucrarea principală a Părintelui Paladie (Kafarov), ce conține explicarea a 11,868 de cuvinte. Dicționarul a fost publicat după moartea Părintelui în 1889.
• 1893 Este construită Sf. catedrală Alexandru din Wǔhàn, Hànkǒu, China.
• 1894-95 Primul război sino-japonez.

Epoca unei misiuni active (1896-1956)

• 1896 Archimandrite Innocent (Figurovsky) arrives in Beijing as head of the eighteenth Mission (1896-1931), spearheading many modern Chinese translations of Orthodox liturgical and catechetical books, and setting a more missionary spirit, revitalizing the mission; he established a monastery, instituted daily services in Chinese, and dispatched preachers to the lands outside Beijing to spread the Gospel.
• 1898 The modern city of Harbin is founded, with the start of the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway by Russia (an extension of the Trans-Siberian Railway), eventually becoming a major centre of White Russian émigrés, and Imperial Russia’s only colony; 200th anniversary of the consecration of the first Orthodox church in China.
• 1900 Yihetuan (Boxer) revolt, an anti-Western and anti-missionary uprising in China, results in destruction of Orthodox Mission and death of 222 Chinese Orthodox martyrs; the Guan Miao area where the Albazine community lived was laid to rubble, including destruction of its famous library and printing press, where nearly 30,000 engraved Chinese signs were lost, together with service books and the mission archive; the Church of China lost about 1,000 followers either through martyrdom or due to abandonement of the faith.
• 1902 Archimandrite Innocent (Figurovsky) consecrated Bishop in Russia, and returned as first bishop in China. Patriarchate of Moscow glorifiies the 222 Chinese Orthodox martyrs on April 22, 1902 (decree №2874).
• 1903 Orthodox communities in Manchuria (Harbin) placed under Bp. Innocent, Bishop of Beijing; church of the All Holy Martyrs of the Yihetuan Uprising is built on the grounds of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Beijing where many of the 222 martyrs were slain.
• 1907 St. Sophia Cathedral is built in Harbin City, expanded and renovated from 1923-32, becoming the largest Orthodox church in the far east.
• 1912 The Republic of China was established by Sun Yat-sen on January 1, 1912, after over two thousand years of imperial rule.
• 1910 Chinese Prayer book is compiled by Bishop Innokenty (Figurovsky) of Beiguan, Beijing.
• 1915-21 New Culture Movement springs from disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture, and a call for the creation of a new Chinese culture based on global and western standards, especially democracy and science.
• 1916 There were 19 churches in China (including four in Beijing), 3 monasteries in Beijing, and 32 missions (including 14 in Zhili province, 12 in Hebei, 4 in Henan, 1 in Xi’anfu, and 1 in Mongolia), with 5,587 Orthodox Chinese adherents (including 583 who were baptized in 1915), and a thriving and expanding mission; within twenty years that number was estimated at 10,000; the church also ran schools and orphanages including 17 schools for boys and 3 for girls.
• 1917 The Russian Revolution separated the Orthodox Church of China from its traditional support base in Russia, and the Chinese church had to fend for itself; the numbers of Orthodox faithful in China swelled in the wake of the Russian revolution, when anti-Bolshevik Russian emigres (White émigrés) poured across the border into China, forming colonies in Harbin, Shanghai and Beijing; Harbin held the largest Russian population outside of the state of Russia.
• 1922 Orthodox bishops in China came under the jurisdiction of the Synod of Russian Bishops Outside Russia ROCOR (from 1922-1945 in Harbin, 1922-49 in Shanghai); formation of Diocese of Beijing (including the vicariates of Shanghai and Tianjin, and later Hankou), and of the Diocese of Harbin (including Qiqihar and Hailar vicariates), under ROCOR; Protection (Pokrov) of the Theotokos Church is founded in Harbin City.
• 1919 May Fourth Movement; anti-foreign demonstrations.
• 1925 Death of St. Jonah of Manchuria, Bishop of Hankou (1922-1925).
• 1927-1950 Chinese Civil War (Nationalist-Communist Civil War).
• 1929-49 The Jesuit-operated Lyceum of St. Nicholas, in Harbin City, open to both Russian Catholic and Orthodox students, trained many leaders of the Russian Catholic (Uniate) community of Australia and the United States between the World Wars.
• ca.1930 There were more than 50,000 Orthodox in China, mostly Russians; Dioceses were established in Shanghai and Tianjin, in addition to those in Harbin and Beijing.
• 1930 Protection (Pokrov) of the Theotokos Church in Harbin City is rebuilt of brick.
• 1931-45 Japanese-dominated state of Manchukuo ("State of Manchuria") is formed by former Qing Dynasty officials with help from Imperial Japan.
• 1931 Archbishop Simon (Vinogradov) arrives in Beijing as head of the nineteenth Mission (1931-33).
• 1933 Bishop Victor (Svyatin) arrives in Beijing as head of the twentieth and last Mission (1933-56).
• 1934 Shanghai cathedral (Cathedral of the "Surety of Sinners", or "Intercessions of Sinners") is completed, as the newly consecrated Bishop John (Maximovitch) arrives from Serbia.
• 1934-46 St. John (Maximovitch), Bishop of Shanghai.
• 1935 Chinese Orthodox Association of Shanghai is established, sponsored in part by Archpriest Nikolai Li Xunyi.
• 1937-41 Second Sino-Japanese War.
• 1941 Holy Annunciation Church of Harbin is completed in the Neo-Byzantine style, striking in its grandness and rare decorative effects; later destroyed in 1970; Nazi Germany invades Russia (Operation Barbarossa).
• 1945 Diocese of Harbin is subordinated under the Moscow Patriarchate after arrival of the Soviet Army; short occupation of Harbin by the Soviet Army from August 1945 to April 1946, resulting in thousands of Russian emigres being forcibly removed to the Soviet Union; the Moscow Patriarchate resumed jurisdiction over the episcopate in China from ROCOR (i.e. - the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, passed a resolution on December 27, 1945, whereby an integrated metropolitan district within the bounds of China and Korea was formed, led by the Metropolitan of Harbin and East Asia).
• 1946 ROCOR elevated John (Maximovitch) to Archbishop; since ROCOR and the MP were not in communion at this time, Abp. John (Maximovitch) was Archbishop not only of Shanghai, but of all China for the White Russian immigrants; Harbin and East Asia Diocese is transformed into the East Asia Exarchate, by Patriarchal Edict 664 of 11 June 1946, a district uniting the eparcies of Beijing, Harbin, Shanghai, Tianjin and Xinjiang.
• 1946-49 St. John (Maximovitch), Archbishop of Shanghai and over all the Russian faithful in China.
• 1948 St. John (Maximovitch) blessed a revised edition of the 1910 Chinese prayer book of Bishop Innokenty (Figurovsky), with more catechetical material, compiled by Archpriest Nikolai Li Xunyi.
• 1949 Establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China, by the victorious Communists, who end all Chrisitan missionary work; by this time 106 Orthodox churches had been opened in China, with the parishioners generally being Russian refugees, and the native Chinese element constituting at least 10,000 faithful; until 1949 there were more than 15 Russian Orthodox churches and two cemeteries in Harbin alone; treaties were signed between the Soviet and Chinese governments that provided for the turning over of Russian churches to Chinese control; most of the Russians left for Australia, the United States and other places.
• 1950 Symeon (Du) consecrated Bishop of Tianjin in July, becoming the first Chinese Orthodox bishop. Later, in September, he was transferred to be Bishop of Shanghai (1950-1965).
• 1954 East Asia Exarchate (Diocese of Harbin and East Asia) abolished.
• 1956 Archbishop Victor (Svyatin), the last Russian bishop and leader of the 20th Spiritual Mission, returned to the Soviet Union, following agreements reached between Nikita Khruschev and Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), drawing to a close a variegated chapter in the history of Orthodoxy in China.

Autonomie și declin (1956-1984)

• 1956 Church of China under Chinese administration is established under pressure from the Chinese authorities; all non-Chinese clergy leave China; on the orders of then-Soviet leader Nikita Khruschev, the Soviet Embassy took over the territory of the Russian Orthodox mission and tore down the church; On April 24, He Chenxiang, head of the religious affairs department of the State Council of China approved the appointment of Archimandrite Vasily (Shuan) as bishop of Beijing.
• 1957 Holy Synod of the Church of Russia granted autonomy to the Church of China; Vasily (Shuan) consecrated Bishop of Beijing; Church of the All Holy Martyrs of the Yihetuan Uprising is destroyed by the Soviets.
• 1958-61 Great Leap Forward.
• 1960-85 Sino-Soviet split, relations between China and Russia break down.
• 1962 Bp. Vasily reposed; no successor is seated as Bishop of Beijing due to Chinese government constraints.
• 1965 Bp. Symeon (Du) reposed, leaving the Chinese Church without any bishops.
• 1966-76 The Cultural Revolution almost totally destroyed the young Chinese Orthodox Church, with some clergymen being persecuted and exiled, others tortured, churches being closed, their property confiscated, and religious activity forbidden or driven underground.
• 1969 Clashes between China and Russia on the northern border.
• 1970 Death of Archpriest Stefan Wu Zhiquan, the new martyr.
• 1978 The Constitution of the People's Republic of China guaranteed "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions; the five recognized religions by the state include Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism; (Orthodoxy not registered as of yet).

Renașterea Bisericii (1984-astăzi)

• 1984 Protection (Pokrov) of the Theotokos Church of Harbin is reopened, with a few Russian refugees and the Orthodox Chinese being allowed to pray there in 1986; at this time it is the only Orthodox church in the territory of the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) where services have been going on; the resident priest Fr. Grigori Zhu (+2000) attended to the parish consisting of 144 souls ranging in age from 68 to 92.
• 1985 According to the Harbin municipal religious archive, at the end of 1985, Hieromonk Fr. Simon (Bai Zenglin) and Fr. Gregory Zhu were the two remaining priests in Harbin.
• 1986 About 3,000 Orthodox Christians living in the predominantly Muslim autonomous area of Xinjiang were allowed to reconstruct their church of St Nicholas in Urumqi, but with no priest present the community could only meet to pray.
• 1991 Soviet Union collapses, ending Cold War.
• 1993 A delegation of the Russian Orthodox Church including Kirill the Metropolitan of Smolensk and Kaliningrad visited China.
• 1996 Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia (OMHKSEA) founded, with its status recognised by the city's parliament, and the church operating freely in Hong Kong and Taiwan; Metr. Nikitas (Lulias) of Dardanellia becomes first Metropolitan of Diocese of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia (1996-2007).
• 1997 On the occasion of 40th year anniversary of the autonomy of the Orthodox Church in China, the Holy Synod of the ROC met on February 17 1997, deciding to take care of the Orthodox faithfull in China under the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, until a Head of the OCC can be elected; in Harbin, the beautiful St. Sophia Cathedral was renovated and opened as a museum; Hong Kong is returned to Chinese control by the British in July; Abp. Hilarion of Sydney, Australia and New Zealand along with eleven others went on a pilgrimage to China to visit Orthodox holy places in Shanghai, Beijing, Harbin and Manzhouli (Manchzhuria).
• 1998 300th anniversary of the consecration of the first Orthodox church in China.
• 1999 The Russian-Chinese Orthodox Missionary Society is founded in Sydney, Australia, under ROCOR, with the aim of spiritual enlightenment of the Chinese speaking population of the country.
• 2000 Death of Fr. Grigory Zhu in September, leaving the Protection (Pokrov) of the Theotokos Church in Harbin without a priest; Archimandrite Fr. Jonah (Mourtos) arrived in Taiwan in September to lead the mission of the church there, having spent seventeen years as a monk on Mount Athos; St Nicholas Church is rebuilt by the local government in Ghulja (Yining), Xinjiang; according to the 2000 census, 30,505 Evenks were counted in China, a nominally Orthodox Christian ethnic group (self-identified Orthodox minority in China), living in the Hulunbuir region in the north; in December, Abp. Hilarion of Sydney, Australia and New Zealand visited China on a missionary and spiritual trip.
• 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship is signed by Jiang Zemin and Vladimir Putin.
• 2002 A notable improvement in the situation for China's Orthodox may be traced to the installation of Hu Jintao as the country's leader in 2002, according to a Chinese Orthodox source from Shanghai.
• 2003 Death of Fr. Alexander Du Lifu in December, the last remaining Orthodox priest in Beijing, who died without realising his dream of reopening a church in Beijing; Kazakhstan-based Russian Orthodox priest Fr. Vianor Ivanov visited the Xinjiang region to serve the local Orthodox who have no priests, but was detained by Chinese customs, was interrogated for a week, had his religious literature and baptismal crosses confiscated and was deported.
• 2004 Attempts are made to grow the church through cyberspace, as Mitrophan Chin, a young Chinese-American who converted to the Orthodox religion, volunteers as the webmaster for www.orthodox.cn; the Chinese government allowed hieromonk Fr. Moisei (Pilats) of the Monastery of the New Russian Martyrs in Alapayevsk, Russia to visit the Pokrov Church in Harbin to hear confessions in both Russian and Chinese in July; in August a Russian Orthodox Church delegation led by Bishop Mark of Egorevsk met with Chinese officials and representatives of the country's various religious organizations; Brotherhood of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul parish (MP) is established in Hong Kong under Fr Dionisy (Pozdnyaev), dedicated to assist the revival of the Chinese Autonomous Orthodox Church; the first Sunday school in China began in the fall on the grounds of the Russian Embassy, for the Orthodox community in Beijing.
• 2005 As of 2005 there were only five priests, a number expected to grow because several Chinese nationals are currently studying in Orthodox seminaries with the intention of returning to China to serve as priests (depending on the blessing of the Chinese government).
• 2006 Currently there are around 13,000 Orthodox Christians in China, with an estimated 400 residing in the capital Beijing, but they are not recognized as an official religious community; 13 Chinese Orthodox students are undergoing studies at the Sretenskaya Theological Academy in Moscow and the Academy of St Petersburg, to pave the way for a minimal presence of clergy in China; the Russian Orthodox Church did its utmost through president Vladimir Putin, to gain recognition of Orthodoxy in China before the 2008 Olympics in Beijing; Publication of first Orthodox prayer book in both Chinese and Russian, following the editions of 1948 and 1910; the Orthodox Fellowship of All Saints of China (OFASC) is launched in the US, with the strategic vision of producing easy-to-read and accurate modern Chinese translations of important Orthodox texts.
• 2007 50th anniversary of the autonomy of the Orthodox Church in China; the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church decided to open a department concerned with the Chinese Orthodox Autonomous Church (COAC), stressing the need to continue efforts taken by its Department for External Church Relations in the dialogue with the Chinese authorities to normalize the situation of the Orthodox Church in China; Easter liturgies were offered in Russia’s diplomatic missions in China, with over 300 walking in an Easter procession in the Russian Embassy in Beijing, and 120 more attending the Easter liturgy in the Russian Consulate General in Shanghai; the Municipal Housing Bureau of Shanghai mandated the restoration of the Shanghai Cathedral to prepare it as a historical museum; death of Protopresbyter Elias Wen; world's first Russian-Chinese dictionary of Orthodox vocabulary is printed in Moscow; Patr. Alexei II criticized the People's Republic of China for the fate of China’s Orthodox Church, which is denied freedom of religion and deprived of clergy; Metr. Nikitas (Lulias) of Dardanellia called on the government of Beijing to recognise Orthodoxy among the country’s official religions and expressed concern about the plight of Christians in Asia.
• 2008 Fr. Mikhail Wang Quansheng and Protodeacon Evangelos Lu Yaofu, the only indigenous Orthodox clergy left in China, took part in Divine Services for the first time in 46 years, at the Russian consulate in Shanghai, and were awarded medals of the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh (I Degree) by Patr. Alexei of Moscow; Metr. Nektarios (Tsilis) becomes new Orthodox Bishop of Diocese of Hong Kong; Holy Synod of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church glorifies Archimandrite Gury (Karpov); an Orthodox Liturgy was Celebrated at the Olympic Village in Beijing; a Memorial Service in memory of those killed during WWII was served at the Cross Shrine on the grounds of the Embassy of the Russian Embassy, on Victory Day.
• 2009 Archpriest Georges Florovsky's book "Christianity and Culture" is published in the Chinese language; solemn Paschal night Divine Services took place in several Chinese cities including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Hong Kong; in Beijing, Divine Services of Passion Week and Holy Pascha were performed by Archpriest Dionisy (Pozdnyaev) (MP) and Fr. Alexis Dyuka (ROCOR) in the house church of St. Innocent of Irkutsk (Red Fangzi) on the territory of the Russian Embassy; Patr. Kirill met with Ye Xiaowen, China’s Religious Affairs minister, in trying to breathe new life into China’s Orthodox Church.; the Church of St. Innokenty of Irkutsk was consecrated on Sunday August 30 in Labdarin (Inner Mongolia), being the first Orthodox Church consecrated in mainland China in over 50 years, mainly for Russian descendants.

Note

• Some of these dates are necessarily a bit vague, as records for some periods are particularly difficult to piece together accurately.
• The division of Church History into separate eras as done here will always be to some extent arbitrary, though it was attempted to group periods according to major watershed events.
• This timeline is necessarily biased toward the history of the Orthodox Church, though a number of non-Orthodox or purely political events are mentioned for their importance in history related to Orthodoxy or for reference.

Prezența comunităților ortodoxe în China

People's Republic of China (PRC): Administrative Divisions, and Territorial Disputes.

Historically

• Its first communities were made up of Russian immigrants concentrated in the north of the country in Albazin (near the town of Skovorodino, in Russia's Amur Oblast region.
• A group of Albazin Russians were then re-settled in Beijing by Chinese, setting up the Russian Mission (1715-1956).
• Dioceses were later established in Shanghai and Tianjin, in addition to those in Harbin and Beijing;
• The regions of Inner Mongolia, Hankou, Xinjiang, and Hong Kong also had Orthodox churches.

Currently

• In addition to Beijing, where there are about 400 faithful, and Hong Kong and Taiwan, most believers live in four main locations, still mainly of Russian origin:

1. Harbin in Heilongjiang Province, where there is a parish dedicated to the Protective Mantle of the Mother of God.
2. Ergun (Labdarin) in Hulunbuir Province, (Inner Mongolia).
3. Ghulja (Yining, Kulj, Kulj-i), in Xinjiang Province, of north west China (in the Tacheng Prefecture).
4. Urumqi, in Xinjiang Province, of north west China.

Dinastia împăraților Qing (1644-1912)

• 1644-1661 Shunzhi.
• 1661-1722 Kangxi.
• 1722-1735 Yongzheng.
• 1736-1796 Qianlong.
• 1796-1820 Jiaqing.
• 1820-1850 Daoguang.
• 1850-1861 Xianfeng.
• 1861-1875 Tongzhi.
• 1875-1908 Guangxu.
• 1908-1912 Xuantong.

Vezi şi

• Church of China
• Russian Orthodox Mission in China
• Holy Martyrs of China
• Timeline of Church History

Legături externe

Orthodox

• Orthodoxy In China (Official page of the Group for Study of Orthodoxy in China, organized by Department for External Church Relations of Moscow Patriarchate (DECR MP))
• Ecumenical Patriarchate: Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. (OMHKSEA)
• The Orthodox Church in Taiwan. The Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia (OMHKSEA).
• Orthodoxy In China (Mitrophan Chin's website)
• List of Persons in the Local Chinese Church.
• Chinese Orthodox Translation Project
• Chinese Orthodoxy on the Web (Website of St. Jonah Orthodox Church, North Houston, Texas)
• The Russian Embassy - Beijing Travel. tour-beijing.com
• THE CENSER (Official publication of OMHKSEA).
• Orthodox China Discussion Group on Yahoo. ( Recent News )

Wikipedia

Origins in Albazin (Post-1685)

• Albazinians
• Russian–Manchu border conflicts

Russian Emigration to China (Post-1897)

• Harbin Russians
• Russians in China
• Chinese Eastern Railway

Russian Emigrees from Communism (Post-1917)

• White émigré

Roman Catholic

• Roman Catholicism in China
• Jesuit China missions
• List of Roman Catholic missionaries in China
• Chinese Rites Controversy
• Martyr Saints of China (120 martyr-saints in the Roman Catholic Church)
• Studium Biblicum Version (1968; "Franciscan version"; considered by many to be the Chinese Catholics’s Bible).
• Paris Foreign Missions Society
• Pope Pius XII and the Church in China
• Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association

Protestant

• Protestant missions in China 1807-1953
• List of Protestant missionaries in China
• China Martyrs of 1900
• Chinese Underground Churches
• Back To Jerusalem Movement
• Born Again Movement (China)
• List of Chinese Bible translations
• Chinese Union Version (1919; considered by many to be the Chinese Protestant’s Bible).
• Amity Foundation, China (known for its Amity Printing Company (APC), the largest Bible producer in China).

General

• Christianity in China
• Religion in China
• Timeline of Chinese History
• Bibliography of Christianity in China

Heterodox

• Asia Harvest. Christians in China. (Extensive China-wide summary table of Protestant and Roman Catholic populations in all 31 provinces, Municipalities and Administrative Regions in China (plus Hong Kong and Macau).
• Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity.
• CHINA.ORG.CN Books on Christianity Published in China from 1978 to 2002.
• UCANEWS.com. Union of Catholic Asian News. (News about and of interest to the Church in Asia)
• Yutopian Online. History of Christianity in China. (various links)

Institutes

• Institute of Sino-Christian Studies in Hong Kong.
• Monumenta Serica Institute.
• University of San Francisco (USF). The Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural History.
• The Beijing Center for Chinese Studies.
• Institute of Oriental and Asian Studies - University of Bonn.
• School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

• Center for East European and Byzantine Studies at Nankai University, Tianjin, China.

Further Reading

Orthodox

• Dina V. Doubrovskaia. The Russian Orthodox Church in China. In: Stephen Uhalley and Xiaoxin Wu, China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. M.E. Sharpe, 2001. 499 pp. (pp.163-176). (ISBN 0765606615; ISBN 9780765606617)
• Dr. Kevin Baker. A History of the Orthodox Church in China, Korea and Japan. The Edwin Mellen Press, 2006. 288 pp. (ISBN 0-7734-5886-7; ISBN 978-0-7734-5886-4)
• Eric Widmer. The Russian ecclesiastical mission in Peking during the eighteenth century. Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1976. 262 pp. (ISBN 0674781295; ISBN 9780674781290)
• Hieromonk Damascene, Lou Shibai, You-Shan Tang. Christ the Eternal Tao. Valaam Books, Platina, California, 1999. 554 pp. (ISBN 0938635859; ISBN 9780938635857)
• Fr. Seraphim Rose, Abbot Herman, Saint Herman of Alaska Brotherhood. Blessed John, the Wonderworker. 3rd Ed., illustrated. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, 1987. 477 pp. (ISBN 0938635018; ISBN 9780938635017)

In Chinese

• Zhang Sui (张绥) (1943- ). The Orthodox Church and Orthodox Church in China (东正教和东正教在中国).

Shanghai: Xuelin Publishing House (上海 : 學林出版社 : 新華書店上海发行所发行), 1986. 345 pp.

(Available through the National Library of Australia, here.)

• Prof. YUE, Feng (岳峰). History of Orthodoxy ("Dongzhengjiao shi").

(Reviewed by A.V.Lomanov).

In Russian

• Archpriest Pyotr Ivanov (D.Sc. (History)). From the History of Christianity in China. Russia Academy of Sciences: Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS IOS), Moscow, 2005. 224 pp.

(Book review: S. Bakonina. P. Ivanov, priest. From the History of Christianity in China. Far Eastern Affairs, No.004 Vol.35, 2007, pages: 145-149. (English).

• Valeriĭ Pereleshin. Russian Literary and Ecclesiastical Life in Manchuria and China from 1920 to 1952: Unpublished Memoirs of Valerij Perelešin. The Hague: Leuxenhoff, 1996. (ISBN 9072922069)

Articles

• A.S. Ipatova (Lead researcher, Institute of Far Eastern Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences). The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Beijing: 150 Years at the Service of the Church and Diplomacy. DIPLOMAT Monthly: Column - Diplomacy And Religion. Issue 9/2008.
• APOSTOLIKI DIAKONIA (Prof. George Emmanuel Piperakis, University of Athens). SYNAXARION ORTHODOX CHINESE MARTYRS.
• Antoaneta Bezlova. Old time religion struggles to survive. Asia Times, January 12, 2002.
• AsiaNews.it A Russian Orthodox Book of Prayers published in Chinese. AsiaNews.it, November 10, 2004.
• AsiaNews.it Russian Orthodox church to be set up in Beijing shortly. AsiaNews.it, July 06, 2006.
• AsiaNews.it Aleksej II criticises China, Taiwan accepts to open a church. AsiaNews.it, April 12, 2007.
• AsiaNews.it Orthodox Metropolitan: Beijing should allow real religious freedom. AsiaNews.it, July 10, 2007.
• AsiaNews.it Patriarch Kirill meets Ye Xiaowen, China’s Religious Affairs minister. AsiaNews.it, February 12, 2009.
• Ecumenical News International (ENI). Asian Christians persecuted, says Orthodox leader. 2 July 2007.
• Geraldine Fagan. CHINA: Will Orthodox Christians soon be allowed priests?. Forum 18 News, Oslo, Norway. September 22, 2004.
• Igor Rotar. XINJIANG: Security service investigation followed Orthodox priest's deportation. Forum 18 News, Oslo, Norway. September 9, 2004.
• Paul Mooney (Beijing). Keeping the Faith. South China Morning Post, March 28, 2005.
• Religioscope. Toward a rebirth of the Orthodox Church in China - Interview with Mitrophan Chin. Religioscope, 23 Oct 2004.

General

• Harry Schwartz. Tsars, Mandarins, and Commissars: A History of Chinese-Russian Relations. Revised, Illustrated. Anchor Books, 1973. 300 pp. (ISBN 0385025602; ISBN 9780385025607)
• Prof. David Wolff. To the Harbin Station: The Liberal Alternative in Russian Manchuria, 1898-1914. Stanford University Press, 1999. 255 pp. (ISBN 0804732663; ISBN 9780804732666)

Heterodox

Scholarly Historical Surveys

• Dr. Jost Zetzsche. The Bible in China: History of the Union Version, or The Culmination of Protestant Missionary Bible Translation in China. Publ: Monumenta Serica Monograph Series 45. Nettetal: Monumenta Serica. 1999. (ISBN 3805004338; ISBN 9783805004336)
• Dr. Fr. Jean Charbonnier (MEP). Christians in China: A.D. 600 to 2000. Transl. M. N. L. Couve de Murville. Ignatius PR, 2007. 605 pp. (ISBN 0898709164; ISBN 9780898709162)
• Dr. Nicolas Standaert, (Ed.). Handbook of Christianity in China, Volume One: 635-1800. Brill: Leiden, Boston, Koln, 2001. 964 pp. (ISBN 9004114319; ISBN 9789004114319)
• Dr. R.G. Tiedemann, (Ed.). Handbook of Christianity in China, Volume Two: 1800‑Present. Brill, Leiden. ( In Progress )
• Dr. Samuel H. Moffett. A History of Christianity in Asia: Beginnings to 1500. Vol. 1; 2nd Ed. Orbis Books, 1998. 560 pp. (ISBN 1570751625; ISBN 9781570751622)
• Dr. Samuel H. Moffett. A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol.2, 1500-1900. Vol. 2. Orbis Books, 2007. 742 pp. (ISBN 1570757011; ISBN 9781570757013)
• Fr. Arnulf Camps (O.F.M) and Fr. Patrick McCloskey, (O.F.M). The Friars Minor in China 1294-1955: Especially the Years 1925-55. (Based on the Research of Friars Bernward Willeke and Domenico Gandolfi, OFM). St. Bonaventure University: The Franciscan Institute, 1995, 316 pp. (ISBN 157659002X; ISBN 9781576590027)
• Lauren Arnold. Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250-1350. San Francisco: Desiderata Press, 1999. 239 pp. (ISBN 0967062802; ISBN 9780967062808)
• Prof. Kenneth Scott Latourette. A History of Christian Missions in China. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK), 1929. (Repr.: Russell & Russell, 1967). 930 pp. (ISBN 0846209926; ISBN 978-0846209928)
• Prof. Alvyn Austin. China's millions: the China Inland Mission and late Qing society, 1832-1905. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2007. 506 pp. (ISBN 0802829759; ISBN 9780802829757)
• Prof. Dr. Lars Laaman. Christian Heretics in Late Imperial China: Christian Inculturation and State Control, 1720-1850. Routledge, 2007. 204 pp. (ISBN 0415297796; ISBN 9780415297790)
• Prof. Liam Matthew Brockey. Journey to the East: the Jesuit mission to China, 1579-1724. Harvard University Press, 2007. 496 pp. (ISBN 0674024486; ISBN 9780674024489)
• Rev. Bob Whyte, (foreword by the Abp. of Canterbury). Unfinished Encounter: China and Christianity. London: Fount Paperbacks, 1988. (Repr. Morehouse, 1990). 537 pp. (ISBN 0819215279; ISBN 9780819215277)

General

• Dr. David Aikman. Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity Is Transforming China And Changing the Global Balance of Power. Regnery Publishing, Inc., An Eagle Publishing Company, 2006. 418 pp. (ISBN 1596980257; ISBN 9781596980259)
• Dr. Carol Lee Hamrin, and Stacey Bieler. Salt and Light: Lives of Faith That Shaped Modern China. Series: Studies in Chinese Christianity. Pickwick Publications, 2008. 240 pp. (ISBN 1556359845; ISBN 9781556359842)
• Dr. Jason Kindopp, and Dr. Carol Lee Hamrin. God and Caesar in China: Policy Implications of Church-State Tensions. Brookings Institution Press, 2004. 200 pp. (ISBN 0815749368; ISBN 9780815749363)
• Fr. George Minamiki, (S.J.) The Chinese Rites Controversy. Loyola University Press, 1985. 353 pp. (ISBN 0829404570; ISBN 9780829404579)
• Hans Küng and Julia Ching. Christianity and Chinese Religions. Doubleday, 1989. 309 pp. (ISBN 0385260229; ISBN 9780385260220)
• Klaus Koschorke, Frieder Ludwig, Mariano Delgado, and Roland Spliesgart. A history of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450-1990: a documentary sourcebook. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2007, 426 pp. (ISBN 0802828892; ISBN 9780802828897)
• Peter C.H. Chiu. An Historical Study of Nestorian Christianity in the T'ang dynasty between A.D. 636-845. (Ph.D. diss.), Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1987. 319 pp.
• Peter Chen-main Wang (Ed.). Contextualization of Christianity in China: An Evaluation in Modern Perspective. Monumenta Serica Institute, 2008. (ISBN 978-3-8050-0547-0) (11 essays in 4 parts)
• Martha Avery. The Tea Road: China and Russia meet across the Steppe. China Intercontinental Press, 2003. 198 pp. (ISBN 7508503805; ISBN 9787508503806)
• Martin Palmer, Eva Wong. The Jesus Sutras: Rediscovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity. Ballantine, 2001. 270 pp. (ISBN 0345434242; ISBN 9780345434241)
• Dr. Paul Hattaway. China's Christian Martyrs. Kregel Pub., 2007. 496 pp., 195 illustrations. (ISBN 185424762X; ISBN 9781854247629)
• Dr. Paul Hattaway, Brother Yun. Back to Jerusalem: Three Chinese House Church Leaders Share Their Vision to Complete the Great Commission. Gabriel Publishing, 2003. 162 pp. (ISBN 1884543898; ISBN 9781884543890)
• Prof. Daniel H. Bays. Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Stanford University Press, 1999. 508 pp. (ISBN 0804736510; ISBN 9780804736510) (20 essays)
• Prof. Dr. John S. Peale. The Love of God in China: Can One be both Chinese and Christian? Publ. by iUniverse, 2005. (ISBN 0595784224; ISBN 9780595784226)
• Prof. Jacques Gernet. China and the Christian Impact: A Conflict of Cultures. Transl. Janet Lloyd. Cambridge University Press, 1985. 310 pp. (ISBN 0521266815; ISBN 9780521266819)
• Prof. Philip Jenkins, Geraint H. Jenkins. The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia - And How It Died. Publ. by Harperone, 2008. (ISBN 0061472808; ISBN 9780061472800)
• Prof. Dr. Roman Malek (Ed.). The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ. 5 VOLS. Jointly published by Institute Monumenta Serica and China-Zentrum, Sankt Augustin — Nettetal 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007. (All Vols.: ISBN 3805004761)
• Prof. Dr. Roman Malek and Peter Hofrichter (Eds.). Jingjiao. The Church of the East in China and Central Asia. Monumenta Serica Institute. Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 2007. 701 pp. (ISBN 3805005342; ISBN 9783805005340)
• Scott Sunquist, John Hiang Chea Chew, David Wu Chu Sing, et al. A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. W.B. Eerdmans, 2001. 937 pp. (ISBN 080283776X; ISBN 9780802837769)
• Tony Lambert (OMF), Ross Paterson, David Pickard. China's Christian Millions. Monarch Books, 2006. 288 pp. (ISBN 0825461154; ISBN 9780825461156)

Articles

• Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States of America. White Paper--Freedom of Religious Belief in China. Beijing, October, 1997.
• Igor Rotar. XINJIANG: China's isolated Xinjiang religious minorities. Forum 18 News, Oslo, Norway. August 15, 2006.
• Joanna Jiang. History of Christianity in China. 2/17/2008.
• Sarah Schafer. Onward, Christian Soldiers: Chinese Missionaries Are Winning Souls Across The Middle Kingdom - And Plan To Spread Even Farther. NEWSWEEK, May 10, 2004.
• Simon Elegant. The War For China's Soul. TIME. Sunday, Aug. 20, 2006.
• The Economist.com. Christianity in China: Sons of Heaven. The Economist (Print edition). October 2, 2008.
• The New York Times. Christian Martyrs: The Murdering of Missionaries by the Boxers -- A Chinese Nero. August 8, 1903.